Healthy mistrust or complacent confidence? Civic vigilance in the reporting by leading newspapers on nuclear waste disposal in Finland and France

Trust and confidence have been identified as crucial for efforts at solving the conundrum of high-level radioactive waste management (RWM). However, mistrust has its virtues, especially in form “civic vigilance”—healthy suspicion towards powers that be. This article examines civic vigilance “watchdog journalism,” practiced by leading Finnish French newspapers—Helsingin Sanomat (HS) Le Monde (LM)—in their RWM reporting. Although both countries are forerunners RWM, Finland constitutes a Nordic “high-trust society” while France characterized “society mistrust.” Employing methods frame analysis, key RWM-related news frames were identified, consisting varying combinations confidence, skepticism, trust, mistrust. LM's mistrust-skepticism-oriented framings reflect classical watchdog role, sharp contrast with oriented HS, which tends to reproduce government industry framings. Explanations observed differences can be sought historically constituted political media cultures, well national nuclear “regimes”. For further research, we suggest two alternative hypotheses concerning implications these distinct models democracy. 本研究旨在衡量路易安纳州执法官员（LEO）和应急医疗服务（EMS）人员对12个灾害场景的自我报告响应意愿（WTR）。本研究分析了人口特征、促进因素、障碍和潜在激励，以确定哪些因素对WTR产生了显著影响。路易安纳州EMS和LEO人员的整体WTR为69.9%。当感知到的威胁增加时，WTR会下降。更愿意响应的受访者的特征为男性、低于44岁、无子女、退伍军人、经历过灾害、工作经历少于五年、以及伴侣不从事灾害响应工作。对WTR产生统计学显著影响的因素包括：对陌生情况的担忧、家庭顾虑、自身安全、对响应准备感觉良好、对同事负有的责任、以及增加训练频率。就用于提高EMS和LEO人员响应职责意愿的干预手段而言，本研究得出的发现提供了见解。 La confianza y la se han identificado como cruciales para los esfuerzos por resolver el enigma de gestión desechos radiactivos alto nivel Sin embargo, desconfianza tiene sus virtudes, especialmente en forma “vigilancia cívica” - sospecha sana “hacia poderes establecidos. Este artículo examina vigilancia cívica “periodismo vigilancia”, tal lo practican principales periódicos finlandeses franceses, Helsingin Monde, informes RWM. Si bien ambos países son pioneros Finlandia constituye una “sociedad alta confianza” nórdica, mientras que Francia ha caracterizado desconfianza”. Empleando métodos análisis marcos, identificaron marcos noticias clave relacionados con consisten diversas combinaciones confianza, escepticismo, desconfianza. Los encuadres orientados escepticismo reflejan clásico papel perro guardián, marcado contraste Sanomat, tiende reproducir del gobierno industria. Las explicaciones las diferencias observadas pueden buscarse culturas políticas mediáticas históricamente constituidas, así “regímenes” nucleares nacionales. Para futuras investigaciones, sugerimos dos hipótesis alternativas sobre implicaciones estos distintos modelos tienen democracia. The “wicked problem” long-term is frequently described Achilles' Heel industry. Largely because local opposition, few made concrete progress constructing deep geological disposal repositories—the (RWM) option preferred international authorities since 1970s (Sanders Sanders, 2020). A typical repository would consist system tunnels deposition holes constructed stable formations depth 400–600 meters. Both engineered (e.g., copper iron containers packaged) natural (essentially, host rock) barriers designed isolate from living environment up 100,000 years, is, time needed bring down radioactivity background levels. To achieve public acceptance repositories, build safety project trust responsible organizations individuals Dawson & Darst, 2006; Di Nucci, 2019; Ferraro, 2019, pp. 140–148; Kasperson et al., 1992). far less attention paid potential virtues distrust, notably vigilance” could strengthen societal vetting robustness projects (Lehtonen forthcoming; Zukas, 2018). general democratic mistrustful well-known Rosanvallon, Warren, 1999). In such potentially constructive forms include regulation,” whereby civil society exerts pressure on promoters implementers, example, through regulation Litmanen 2017) or processes Social Licence Operate (Litmanen 2016; Lehtonen 2020); active monitoring surveillance municipalities Elam Sundqvist, 2009; Kari 2021). focuses another vigilance, received limited namely role mass “watchdog” be—through provision objective, fact-based critical information citizens (Jebril, 2013), expressing “healthy suspicion” be, thereby helping hold political, economic cultural elites account (Allard 2016, p. 14; Kojo 2020; Laurent, 2009, 27; 1999, 310). We examine manifestations articles policy newspapers (Helsingin [HS]) (Le [LM]), forerunner Starting assumption contribute (re)constructing expressions ways projects. empirical analysis explores journalistic relating particular. Drawing earlier upon cultures explaining research possible consequences different cultures. covers period 2005–2018, when countries' advancing implementation. comparison particularly instructive, given highly contexts France. While boasts exceptionally high levels mistrust, terms citizens' institutions fellow (Agacinski, 2018; Melin, Special Eurobarometer, 2017). Our reveals significant variation LM HS execute function, between confidence-focused latter mistrust-skepticism LM. country-specific features power structures sector, cultures—in particular, contrasting traditions vigilance—and positions respective “regimes” imaginaries. own strengths weaknesses gain effectiveness value mutual interaction evolving context. next section presents concepts framing. Section three briefly describes main milestones policies. Data presented four, results five. six discusses findings, seven concludes. conceptual framework consists elements. First, building social science literature distinguish four interrelated concepts: skepticism. Second, employ method operationalizing our study. Two partly pairs serve starting point analysis: trust-mistrust, confidence-skepticism. broadly defined situation an individual accepts “believe without knowing,” placing herself voluntarily position vulnerability (Laurent, 2009). Mistrust often operates connection trust. It manifest itself attitude stemming doubt fear, passive prudent “wait-and-see” stance, strategy, skill art, help deal risky uncertain reality 10).1 relies individual's “judgment similarity intentions values,” “the belief, based experience evidence, certain future events will occur expected” (Earle Siegrist, 2006, 386). “morality-relevant information,” perceived quality relationship parties, whereas “performance-relevant tangible historical evidence appraisals prevailing (Kinsella, 231). define skepticism counterpart confidence—reflecting absence compelling past experience, rules, regulations, norms underpinning confidence. people typically pass judgement trustworthiness individuals, show relation technical solution Mays 2003). Three basic assumptions underpin analysis. viability requires affected populations private actors question Kinsella, OECD-NEA, constitute player enhancing undermining but also exercising acting “watchdog.” doing so, constantly straddle elements model journalism, objectivity, factuality, coverage 2013). seeking strike balance objective reporting “facts” one hand scrutiny those other, journalism mobilizes—in combinations—trust varies according context, including relations question: depending situation, either erode essential prerequisites. founded liberal conception (McQuail, 2005, 128), hence mistrust-based democracy pluralistic view power. blamed sensationalism indiscriminate critique (Clayman 2007, 24) feed apathy cynicism about politics (McNair, 2003) undermine credibility (Wang Cohen, 2009), primary interest lies manifestation trust-based democracies other Jasper, 1990; De Carlo, Montin, 2015; Puustinen generally “well audiences across Europe” 2013, 14), despite similarities strong public-service broadcasting), mirror citizen perceptions what implies, criticality, should play journalism. Third, although never fully determine opinion (Nisbet Newman, 2015, 362), they crucially shape agendas “issue frames” (de Vreese, 2005). Hence, enhance solutions actors. Despite rising importance Internet amongst younger generations (Matikainen 2020, 59–60), level, “traditional” (i.e., press, television, radio) still source agenda-setter (Hedberg, 1991, 59; 2010, 173; Raittila Vehmas, 2001, 10). framing processes, turn, conditioned factors internal external former particular editorial orientation newspaper Carvalho Burgess, choice similar societies minimizes influence this variable. exercised therefore, more likely owe factors, journalists elites, relationships state 2005), communication culture (Doyle, 2011; Pfetsch, 2004), energy “regimes.” According Goffman (1986), “frame” schema interpreting reality. provides way organizing describing event question, making sense “raw” information, giving it meaning coherence (Goffman, 1986). Through actor groups select emphasize aspects reality, shaping not only specific topics, problem definitions, interpretations, moral judgements, and/or recommendations come prevail (Chong Druckman, 2007; Entman, Nisbet 362). Media organize who rely them—the issue shapes understood various (Scheufele Tewksbury, 2007). Definition related final disposal. Diagnosis causes reasons portrayed media. Evaluation possibly involved. Suggested course action. context policy. Four reactors, taken into operation late early 1980s, currently supply one-third Finland's electricity. fifth unit—a French-built European Pressurized Reactor, EPR—is scheduled start regular electricity generation Eurajoki February 2022, after repeated delays, sixth reactor, Fennovoima consortium, planning phase. majority MPs usually support proposed utilities—owned mainly energy-intensive export state. Successive governments have, confirmed commitment schedule established 1983 mid-1990s Internationally, exemplary case consensual governance Long-term preparation, clear definition responsibilities, solid regulatory framework, consistent implementation laid out decisions 1978 highlighted among easy nearly conflict-free advancement Vira, 2017; Vuorinen, 2008). become operational 2020s. reaction legislative reforms banning exports imports, utilities, state-owned company IVO (today, 51% Fortum Heat Ltd.) privately-owned TVO, 1995 joint company, Posiva, implement project. Until 1996, exported spent fuel USSR, TVO had searched site 1980s. Local opposition candidate pushed pay greater stakeholder involvement 1980s (Kojo, true milestone was passed 1997-99, Posiva organized long participatory process Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), mandatory couple years earlier. considered, already shifted focus Loviisa Eurajoki, municipalities, where expected little resistance. Following assurances agreement benefit scheme, municipal council gave approval 2000 Kojo, 2019). paved almost unanimous parliamentary ratification Decision-in-Principle (DiP) May 2001. DiP license 2017, 648), instead decision confirming line overall good society. 2001 widely interpreted demonstration now solved (Raittila Suominen, 2002). launched construction underground rock characterization facility 2004. obtained “Onkalo” repository, built granite bedrock, Swedish KBS-3 concept (Vira, license, needs authority, STUK (Mäenalanen, debate, private-industry arrangement problem. image crumbled rejected Fennovoima's plan dispose Olkiluoto. pressure, did give in, searching 2016 (Kojo Oksa, 2014; Vilhunen companies do collaborate, however, Posiva's subsidiary, Solutions, delivers expert services Fennovoima. sector “flexible, development-oriented and, such, gradual learning refinement” (OECD-NEA, 2003, 12; see Mäenalanen, 649–650; 2008) entailing close collaboration regulator applicants paralleled underpinned Finns actors, mild against As many 82% Finns, locally nationally, 2012; Currently, symbiotic prosperity willing delegate risk-related authority (Kari 2021; recent polls, increasing number (about 50%) consider environmentally friendly production (Finnish Energy, 1950s occupied special place within state, major enjoying wide cross-party until mid-1990s, emergence Green party actor, country's post-War modernization, pride (Hecht, With 57 operating reactors supplying over 70% needs, nation Europe. problematic EPR underway Flamanville go on-line 2023 earliest. committed reducing share 50% 2035. conflict-ridden history Barthe, Blowers, 2016). set up, 1979, National Radioactive Waste Management Agency (Andra) relatively engineering quickly deteriorated discovery downplayed extent Chernobyl fallout 1986 (Ambroise-Rendu, Kalmbach, 2015), following vehement Andra's investigations 1987–1990 (Barthe, 2006). re-establish declared moratorium 1990, reinitiated search 1991 options, opened discussion range landmark Act introduced ideas reversible community schemes led establishment multistakeholder commissions, evaluating bodies, liaison committees (CLIS). These added complexity multilevel Towards 1990s, conflict erupted again, declining risk, laboratory (URL) Bure. communities soon turned Bure facto hosting (Blowers, 15-year “opening up” inaugurated culminated debate 2005–06 Commission Public Debate (CNDP). even observers acknowledged (Global Chance, 64), suffered subsurface storage—an debate—was excluded subsequent preparing 2006 Act. parallel transparency security birth independent (ASN), assisted organization, IRSN. approved proposal creation Cigéo.2 CNDP Cigéo farce, persistent obstruction opponents (Blanck, Parliament adopted law specifying details project, principle reversibility. supported most parliamentarians, departmental authorities, business organizations, trade unions, mayors region, continues generate controversy clashes police. Andra plans pilot testing phase 2030, Like Finland, financing comes via taxes levied largely producers: EDF, Orano (until Areva), R&D agency, CEA.3 Unlike opted, being, reprocessing fuel, reused SNF considered waste. 78% population trusts 63% (Ifop, 6). National-level surveys reveal discrepancy (76.5%) competence low sincerity telling truth risks (40% ASN 57% IRSN; IRSN, 129). occupy similarly central landscape. daily second-most trusted producer (after broadcasting YLE). readership—17% reads paper 27% online version weekly 19; Newman declares politically independent. holds, comparison, unique uncontested nationwide opinion. reinforced resources overwhelmingly superior rivals (Jensen-Eriksen 7). press general, rather consistently reliable baseload vital (Antal Karhunmaa, 2018, 999; Haavisto, 2008; Teräväinen, Teräväinen 2011). read Its 8% 13% population. Officially independent, qualified center-left. reader poll 2014, 64% respondents themselves left-wing (Newman revealed intermedia consistency newspapers, LM, reflecting agenda (Blanchard, 325–334; Brouard Guideaudeau, 148–149). crisis strongly (Flamino, Jensen-Eriksen 370–379, 413). 71% p.19). maintained “newspaper record” 2016) 20), shown played agenda-setting landscape respect 2010; 2015). survey placed country highest (59%) media, (24%) near bottom scale 20).4 countries, decline, recently due “Yellow Vest” protest, being attacked “being part establishment” 20). performed published January 1, December 31, 2018. During period, present agenda, French-led renaissance new reactor (Brouard Szarka, 2013; Ylönen newspaper's database conducted, terms: waste, disposal, STUK, radioactive—using root words (ydinjät, loppusij, radioaktiiv) capture declensions. items (referrals actual items, chronicles, etc.) addressed type than (military intermediate level wastes, contaminated materials, referred transport, storage, dumping (unless item disposal). concern Finland. Of remaining 135 chosen collected Europresse database, electronic versions newspaper. Applying Boolean operators, keywords used: (déchets radioactifs) OR nucléaires) (stockage géologique) (enfouissement des déchets) AND all mentioned Prospéro sociolinguistics software,5 large text corpuses Chateauraynaud, 2003), used narrow corpus 1731 articles. done steps. included “principal actors”6 “radioactive waste,” “Andra,” “Cigéo” (the name project). resulted secondary 252 IRSN Andra. Combining resulting 237 first elimination round 438 texts (once doubles removed). narrowed total 210 selecting entity (including declinations) actor.” qualitatively (Buhr Hansson, procedure combined reading, mindful, disciplined reading object deeper understanding meanings” (Brummett, 2019) hermeneutic approach, progressive deepening phenome